Cooling is an important component of modern life and economies. Refrigeration prolongs the shelf life, safety and quality of everything from food to vaccines, while air-conditioning makes for comfortable homes, schools and businesses, in many cases raising productivity. Precise cooling conditions are essential for high-tech manufacturing, research, and data centres. Demand for mechanical cooling equipment is growing rapidly, unlocking benefits, but also driving up greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. In the years to come, the world will need to expand cooling access while switching from outdated, electricity-intensive approaches. Implementing and enforcing energy-efficiency standards, switching to less environmentally harmful refrigerants, and using of low-carbon energy will be critical.